Potheri Kunhambu's attempt to replace the word with words: Literacy and Christianity vs. Manusmriti in the novel Saraswativijayam

    Written in 1892 by Potheri Kunhambu, a thiyya lawyer; Saraswativijayam recognises education as the panacea to eradicate caste inequality in India. Unlike other Dalit authors that narrate their story as a low caste, wallowing in despair and miseries of caste oppression; Kunhambu surprisingly narrates the story of the oppressor. His protagonist, a Nambudiri apparently kills a Pulaya for merely singing a song while harvesting a paddy field. For him education is not for the backward caste to achieve. With his strict adherence to Manusmriti as the text to follow, he often quotes and misinterprets it to defend his corrupt dispositions. The educated society's and colonial rule's disagreement with the Nambudiri's holy text force him to flee to Kashi. Finally getting captured by the police for the murder of Pulaya, we come to know that the Pulaya had escaped death and was now the judge of the trial for this case. With an amusing ending, Kunhambu shows us how the Pulaya, (now Mr Jesudasan; with a name that literally means Servant of Jesus) achieved a name, status, designation and an identity only after his religious conversion to Christianity and attainment of education, towards the climax. It was Kunhambu's stance as an activist: believing that fluidity of colonial modernity in India could help lower caste to overcome unjust codes of Manusmriti, marginalization and humiliation through better education and social status. This paper intends to analyse Nambudiri's strict faith in Manusmriti, his misinterpretation of laws and Kunhambu's effort to redirect colonialism as a weapon to counter caste issues and dethrone the prominent text of upper caste in Kerala.

Keywords: education, caste inequality, Manusmriti, Christianity, colonialism

Potheri Kunhambu's attempt to replace the word with words: Literacy and Christianity vs. Manusmriti in the novel Saraswativijayam

       Many authors like Omprakash Valmiki believe that education can never affect one's caste. Potheri Kunhambu on the other hand believes that it's the only thing that can liberate one from caste to an extent. When we analyse the situations where Dalit students faced discrimination and atrocities in central universities and state governed institutions in recent years, fair and proper education is still a distant dream to many of the backward castes. Is caste a concept eradicated by knowledge? Can modernity affect the traditional Hindu scriptures of discrimination without creating a huge uproar among the conservative and 'culture guardians' of our nation? Through the novel Saraswativijayam, Potheri Kunhambu narrates a story where the Brahmin had to willingly give up Manusmriti in a fight against Indian Penal Code created by the British. "The stagnation and iniquity of traditional society is contrasted with the promise of equality and freedom brought about by the colonialism and the missionary presence". (98) Caught in between them are the lower castes struggling to find a footing among the colonial rulers who challenged the freedom of their nation, upper caste who marginalised and denied them human rights, a foreign religion like Christianity that offered them equality and one true god and the Hinduism, a culture more than a religion that they have grew up in.

       Potheri Kunhambu wrote Saraswativijayam in 1892 as a response to the caste prejudice that existed in Kerala at that time. He was born into a Thiyya caste whose traditional occupation was toddy tapping. Kunhambu deviating from the family job got educated and became a lawyer. All through his life he wrote pamphlets and in journals like Keralapatrika, Keralasancari and Bhashaposhini and various other works. Though many of his works are hard to acquire let alone in English translation, his activism and pamphlets have played a huge role in resistance against caste bigotry in the State. He also established Edward Press in Kannur district of Kerala to publish various books and pamphlets. Since he was so engaged in the fight against the discernment of Pulaya community of Malabar in Kerala he was even called Pulayan Kunhambu. Kunhambu realised that colonialism in India was a weapon that should be handled with great care by the lower castes. In the afterword to the English translation of the novel, translator Dilip Menon describes how the elite saw colonialism as an opportunity to "insinuate themselves as  illegal immigrants" to modernity (94). It's the lower castes that had no sense of belonging since and from that period. Already placed at the margins of traditional social hierarchy, they got further alienated from the centre with the arrival of foreign powers of subordination, but this power opened a worm hole to the periphery to transcend and understand the dominating power of the traditional Hindu structures. Mr Menon suggests that "From Phule to Ambedkar, the ambivalence towards colonialism stems from this existential dilemma... Tradition subordinates, modernity frees." (94). Kunhambu aligns himself with the thoughts of Rajaram Mohan Roy that understood English education as a means of striving against all the discriminatory practises of society.

It's not the intention of Kunhambu to narrate a novel just to create awareness among the public. As an activist he expects reaction from his readers. Kunhambu in his introduction to the novel writes, "If any Malayali who reads this book is moved enough by the plight of the suffering creatures mentioned above to uplift them from their present helpless state, my purpose is fulfilled."(xii) He intends to use the foreign genre and symbol of modernity like 'novel' as the means to incite action among the public. Mr Menon points out the "amphibiousness" of Kunhambu's social existence, as an educated lower caste above his other poor fellow lower castes yet not born in high caste to be accepted by them for his educational qualifications. Kunhambu accepts the fate because "the blandishments of colonial modernity meant much more to him than the doubtful solace of tradition."(95)

       Title of the novel 'Saraswativijayam' means that 'education is the greatest wealth'. (xi) It was knowledge that opened doors for Kunhambu towards activism and a legal designation. Kunhambu even wrote a biography of Ramakrishna Parahamsa called Ramakrishna Samvadam after getting attracted to the deconstruction of Hinduism that Paramahamsa intended. Ramayanasarashodhana written the year after the publication of Saraswativijayam narrated the story of Ramayana from a different angle. "Rama's banishment to the forest, the exile of Sita after return from Lanka- are seen as the outcome of Brahmin intrigue in revenge for Rama's opposition to establish Brahmin supremacy..." thus portraying "Brahmins as the malevolent guardians of Hinduism"(97). Mr Menon observes that Murkkoth Kumaran who wrote the introduction to the Malayalam second edition of the novel suggests that Saraswativijayam was a 'prime example of living literature'(100) and that Kunhambu's issues were not with Hinduism but with the 'religion of Brahmins'(97). Kunhambu fought an internal battle from within the constricting walls of Hinduism. Though he never converted to Christianity, he urged conversion of Thiyyas in his book Tiyyar in 1904. Mr Menon sees Saraswativijayam as a point of compromise, one between acceptance of colonial modernity and "possibility of an internal critique of Hinduism". (98)

In the first chapter, Kunhambu describes the Nambudiri as a person "well versed in the srutis, smritis, puranas and other texts sacred to the Hindus".(1) This very avowal subtly suggests that a man skilled in such fields have the potential to exploit it in any way he deems. With this knowledge he claimed and threatened Pulayas and Cherumas as his salves by quoting verses from Manusmriti to his fellow upper caste members thus blinding them to the Act by the British Government that abolished slavery. By ingraining inferiority through denial of property, untouchability that forced them to stand 64 feet away from the Brahmin and adimapanam (slave's tax), he controlled the Pulayas around him.  Accompanying him in a journey from son in law's illam (ancestral home) back to home are two Shudras Ramankutty Nambiar and Krishnankutty Nambiar. They express reverence and veneration to Nambudiri whenever he quotes a scripture because both never utilized the opportunity to learn. Nambudiri has nothing but contempt towards them. Suddenly halting in between the journey by hearing a beautiful song, Nambudiri sends Ramakutty Nambiar to investigate the whereabouts of the singer. Learning that the singer with the beautiful voice and clear enunciation was a Cheruma, Ramankutty kicks the slave to the ground rendering him unconscious and assumes he is dead. With pride Ramankutty reports back to Nambudiri the transgression of the slave and the punishment he received. Kunhambu describes how ecstatic Nambudiri is to learn that the Cheruma was dead. He gifts Ramakutty to teach others a lesson. An interesting conversation occurs when Nambudiri's granddaughter sees this act and questions the felicitation.

"Nambudiri: Cherumas are not even supposed to learn how to read and write. If he does learn and what's more begins to sings as well, we shan't have any rains. "

Child: But last evening it rained.

Nambudiri: You talk so much, child. There is a law that Cherumas should not learn how to read and write. You won't understand."(9)

Associating rain as a blessing from God's for keeping up the purity of land and reserving music for the upper castes to laws, Nambudiri is referring to the ones mentioned in Manusmriti. To him Manu has dictated the law for humanity that must be strictly followed. Belief in this law based on no logical or rational reasons questions the intelligence that Nambudiri boasts he has acquired. Music is divine. The divinity for him is reserved to the Brahmins. No pathways to transcend the humanity to something sublime and spiritual must be accessible for the lower castes. Farming was the chief occupation in Kerala at that time and what does farmers fear the most? Lack of rainfall! Threaten them with a future days no rainfall and the fear commits the rest of the crime. It restrains questions and thought process of a human mind.

       Learning from his Cheruma's mother that it was a white sahib that taught the Cheruma how to read, write and sing in a Cheruma school in the plantation under his religious teachings, Nambudiri sees this as a threat to the country.

"You are not supposed to learn how to read and write. If you educate yourself, not only you, but the entire country will be stricken with poverty... Will there be another incarnation to do what Rama, the son of Dasharatha did? It is the height of Kali. "(10)

After evicting the poor Cheruma's family from his land as a punishment, Nambudiri explains his reference from Sriramodantakavyam to a fellow Brahmin Kuppan Pattar.

"Nambudiri: When Sri Rama ruled the land the son of a sage died. Since there were no obvious causes for his death, the Brahmins got together and discovered the real reason through the strength of their knowledge of the Vedas and their austerities. They found that some distance away from the village a Sudra by the name of Sambuka was practising austerities and penance. As you know Sudras are forbidden from such acts.

Pattar: Of course. Without a doubt.

Nambudiri: That was the reason why the son of the sage died, The Brahmins informed Rama who was then the king. Rama immediately killed the Sudra, and at that very moment the boy came to life. In those times truth prevailed." (11-12)

Kunhambu skilfully employs the texts in which Nambudiri devotes his utter faith. The heinous crime committed by killing an innocent Sudra was covered up by the duty of a king to protect the Brahmins from harm. At no angle one can find a justification to such acts. Kunhambu doesn't criticise any quotes Nambudiri cites with any side note. He narrates the story to the readers uninterruptedly and the direct narration reveals the dark and dirty side of hailed Hindu texts and scriptures. By reiterating the written word again, Kunhambu intend to rewrite or displace the text, its baseless justification and make his readers cognizant of corrupt 'written words'.

To escape from the punishment ruled by the Indian Penal Code Nambudiri turns back to Vedas and Smritis, and comes up with the more important set of rules  from Manusmriti to prove his point.  He argues that slaves and low castes are born in such a state because of their sin from the past life. The adhikari (supervisor) and Magistrate are supposed to judge Nambudiri not guilty because 

"Protecting a Brahmin's life is more virtuous act than saving one's own."

"If you don't protect a Brahmin you are damned both in this life and the next."(20)

"A just king should fine and banish the (lower) three classes if they give false evidence, but he should merely banish a priest (Manu, 8:123)."

"Manu the son of the Self- existent has proclaimed ten places on which the three (lower) classes may be punished, but a priest should depart uninjured(Manu, 8:125)." (21)

"Shaving the head is ordained as the punishment consisting in the loss of the life's breath for a priest; but for the other classes the punishment should be the (actual) loss of the life's breath.(Manu, 8:379)."(21)

"Regardless of whether we lie or commit a sin, because of our sacred powers, no evil accrues in us." (22)

"Gayatri Mantra absolves them of all blame." (24)

"God has created Sudras to be our servants and servants don't need education".

"Even if he is set free by his master, a servant is not set free from slavery; for since that is innate in him, who can take it from him?(Manu, 8:414)

"Chandalas cannot be owners of property" (34)

By quoting several other verses from Manusmriti, Nambudiri succeeded to coerce adhikari to change his report of the crime. Kunhambu betells this strategy to the one employed by fraud merchants who sell an ordinary stone by placing it in a highly ornate box. "If extremely unjust laws are wrapped up in Sanskrit, recited by a supposedly reputable Brahmin... very few people will criticise them... keeping others in ignorance is absolutely essential to their prosperity and means of livelihood" (23) Brahmins thus by exploiting the ignorance of Sudras bravely declares lines from this scriptures as the supreme law. "Only too aware of the hollowness of the stories and verses that they cite... it is not uncommon for Brahmins to misinterpret the meaning of Vedas to justify their evil customs either deliberately or out of ignorance." (23)

Kunhambu also describes through Nambudiri's citations other eccentric notions in Manusmriti that dictates the name of sudras must inspire disgust and the service they render. A priest should purify himself in water regardless its source. The dirt doesn't matter as long as its water. Rose water magically purifies a cloth polluted by the touch of a Sudra. Covering breasts is a right only for upper caste women. Women are not allowed to meet people outside their home (they are addressed as antarjanams that literally means people inside). Certain Brahmin girls who do not get married before puberty would lose their caste. Such practises in India emerged out of misinterpreted or poorly written Hindu scriptures. Blind devoting himself to such rules Nambudiri repeats the same blunders again by quoting scriptures to the European Kozhikode Collector as a justification of keeping slaves and temples in his jurisdiction.

"But the dwellings of "fierce" Untouchables and "dog- cookers" should be outside the village; they must use discarded bowls, and dogs and donkeys should be their wealth. (Manu, 10:51)

Their clothing should be the clothes of the dead, and their food should be in broken dishes; their ornaments should be made of black iron, and they should wander constantly. (Manu, 10:52) "

"All of this belongs to the priest, whatever there is in the universe; the priest deserves all of this because of his excellence and his high birth (Manu, 1:100)". (34)

The encounter with the educated Christian converted lower castes now called Vedakkar, Nambudiri wonders if all follow the same occupation. For him this was a sign of Kaliyug and the impending doom upon humanity. Narrating the further story Kunhambu attracts our attention to seven important aspects.

1. The lament of Ramnkutty's wife for his arrest was the following: " That a Pulaya should be the cause of all this: a creature so low that we have to wash our eyes out after looking at him... O God! Why us? In earlier times, how many Pulayas were buried alive under mud walls? How many were trampled into the dirt! And no one was punished for any of this. It is our fate, what can be done? "(47) Which makes the readers go duh?

2. The beloved scriptures of Nambudiri caused the Smarthavicharam (trial according to the rules of Smarthans) and expulsion of his daughter from the community by false accusations. It hurt him when it got personal. His son in law was engulfed in grief, the children lost their father, and Subhadra (daughter) now addressed as sadanam (thing) lost her dignity forcing her to surrender the umbrella and breast cloth.

3. All the Brahmins that assembled for Smarthavicharam broke the rules of Manusmriti by engaging in legal marital affairs (according to scriptures only the eldest Nambudiri was allowed to marry, others had affairs with Nair women), acquiring occupations in government or cultivation.

4. Choultry system that were established to feed Brahmin travellers never took interest in people struck by poverty

5. Education that Subadra later received from a German padre helped her to regain balance in her life again and gave her power to look after her children, eventually getting employment as a school teacher. She is reconciled with her husband later when he decided to reject Hinduism and convert to Christianity to join his family and get out of the absurd notions of scriptures.

6. His social commentary on prevalent alcoholism and corruption of that time,

7. The Cheruman that had escaped death now called Mr Jesudasan; with a name that literally means Servant of Jesus; achieved a name, status, designation and an identity only after his religious conversion to Christianity and attainment of education. He surprises Nambudiri but turning up as the judge to the murder case where Nambudiri was accused and as the husband of his granddaughter. (Subhadra's daughter). Nambudiri towards the end shows a slight change of mind.

It should be noted that Kunhambu's attempt to tackle knowledge with knowledge met severe criticisms. Kunhambu's citation of famous verses from eminent and epic texts of Hinduism was seen as a show off or ignorance by some critics. A deep reading would suggest many of these verses have a connection to the story narrated in that particular chapter. It's unsettling to see Kunhambu's attempt to criticise the monopolised knowledge but adding his own Knowles about the scriptures was met with harsh criticisms. Did they believe that a Thiyya could never achieve superiority? Did they feel he was overcompensating? The success of the novel is an underlying idea as suggested by Dilip Menon "Kunhambu conceives of the Brahmin and untouchable as a dyad, neither can find salvation without moving out of the master- slave relation that traps them in unequal and unending combat ". (ix)

Bibliography

·        Doniger, Wendy and Brian K Smith. The Laws of Manu. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991.

·        Kunhambu, Potheri. Saraswativijayam translated by Dilip Menon. New Delhi: The Book Review Literary Trust, 2002.

·        Valmiki, Omprakash. Joothan. New Delhi: Columbia University Press, 2003.